PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
Translated and edited by: Denny Nugraha
Department of English Education 5th Semester
From the module of “Landasan Pendidikan” (the foundation of
education)
Originally written by: Dr. Asep Kurniawan, M.Ag
The State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) Syekh Nurjati Cirebon
Introduction
The success of
teachers in doing their various roles will be influenced by their comprehensions
about the development of their students, also the skills to be applied in their
teaching practice. This statement refers to the assumption that one of the
roles of teacher is to help students to be able to complete the development
tasks that are commensurate with their development. Moreover, the other role of
teachers in the teaching process is to become the good facilitator and
motivator for their students. For the sake of the their roles implementation,
teachers should also understand how students learn which is crucial regarding
to learning theory.
This module will
address the significance of understanding the concepts, principles, and the
directions; steps and tasks of individual development, also learning theory and
its implication towards education. The comprehension of learning materials will
be useful for teachers in establishing their educational knowledge, thus they
are expected to be capable to avoid any possible mistakes for the sake of their
success in teaching and learning process. Besides all, they should not be
mistaken in recognizing their students and should have relatively appropriate
clues regarding what they should do or something that is possible to be
neglected in teaching process.
Individual Development and Its Influential Factors
Each individual in
their life journey experiences what is called development. Development is the
process of change that is ongoing process since the occurence of conception
till the death (Yelon and Weinstein, 1977). The changes in such individual
development can happen because of two things, those are: 1) maturation and 2)
learning.
Besides of the
term of development, the term of growth is also often used to show the changes
that are happen on individual. For example in this following sentence, “ the
growth of that child is so quick. Seems that just yesterday I left him,
yesterday he was still child, eeh now he has grown”. Does the growth have
similar meaning with the development? Crow and crow stated that growth is about
the structural and physiological changes on someone that happen since the
conception through prenatal and postnatal periods until his/her maturation (E.
Usman Effendi and Juhaya S. Praja, 1984:48). So, growth constitutes the process
of changes regarding with physical aspects of individual such as body height,
body weight etc. Whereas development is the process of change that mainly
related with psychological aspects of individual like mental, social, and
emotional changes etc., in which such changes can create visible behavior,
although it cannot be measured like what happens on the changes that is about
physical aspects. However, individual is fundamentally one unity that cannot be
divided or cannot be separated, thus truly between the process of growth and
development is difficult to be separated one another. Between physical growth
and social, emotional, moral, mental development of individual actually are
difficult to be separated, because physical growth and such development aspect
are mutually connected and influenced. Regarding this, Sunaryo Kartadinata and
Nyoman Dantes (1996/1997:50) stated that: “the development is the complex
process because it is the result of various biological, cognitive, social, and
moral process”. Therefore the growth will always be involved in the process
of development.
As explained in
above that the changes in individual development can occur because of
maturation and learning. Maturation is individual changes as the result of
physical growth or biological changes, than as the changes through the
experience. The changes that happen on individual that includes maturation is
not the effect of experience, but they are because the effect of physical
growth or changes in biological aspects. For instance, at a certain moment for
the first time a girl will experience certain change, namely menstruation.
Menstruation occurs not as the consequence of experience that girl does, but it
is the result of the certain physical and biological achievement.
The changes in
individual development also can happen because of learning. According to Morgan
“learning is every behavior change that relatively remains as a result of
training and experience” (M. Ngalim Purwanto, 1993:84). In line with that
definition, Cronbach stated that “learning is shown by a change in behavior
as a result of experience”. Learning is showed by the change of behavior as
the result of experience (Sardiman A.M, 1986:22). On the other side,
Witherington defines learning as the change within the personality as in
realization of response patterns or the new behavior such as skill, attitude, habit,
proficiency, or certain comprehension. Different with the definition or
statement above, Good and Brophy in their book Educational Psychology: A
Realistic Approach explain that learning is an internal process, that
occurs on individual which is undergoing it, in his/her effort to attain new
associations. Those new associations can be such relation among stimulations,
among reactions, or between stimulation and reaction. Good and Brophy stated: “Learning
is the development of new associations as a result of experience” (M.
Ngalim Purwanto, 1983:85).
Based on the above
statements and definitions about learning, we can conclude that learning is the
change of behavior on individual that is relatively permanent and happens as
the result of experience. There are some characteristics within the definition
of learning, those are:
a.
The definition of learning involves
the process and the result.
b.
As a process, learning is an
intentional effort that is ongoing process on individual and happens through
the experience.
c.
Learning process produces the change
of behavior on individual. The changes of behavior as the result of learning
involve various personality aspects, physical or psychological aspects, like
the change about knowledge, comprehension, habit, skill, attitude, etc.
d.
Behavioral changes as the result of
learning are relatively permanent.
The Principles and The Directions of Development
Yelon and Weinstein (1977) stated five principles of individual
development, those are:
1.
Individual development is simultaneously
progressing since the conception till the death.
2.
The speed of development of each
individual is different, but in general they have normal development.
3.
All aspects of development that is
physical, social, mental and emotional within their growth/development is one
another mutually connected or mutually influential. The superior child tends to
be superior in various aspects.
4.
The direction of individual
development can be predicted.
5.
The development works step by step;
every step has certain characteristic; the step of development is one way with
age; the step of development works continuously and overlaping.
The principles of development as described above are important to
be understood, because they implicate towards education and they will function as
assumption in implementation of educational tasks for teachers.
The first principle of development states that “individual
development works simultaneously since the conception till the death”. In the
other hand, we know that education is held to change individual behavior to the
expected point. Thus, this principle implicates that education may be able to
be conducted, because if individual is in the development, individual may still
change. Moreover, because the development goes long-life, thus education should
also be held long-life.
“The speed of development of each individual is different, but in
general they have normal development”. By this second principle, teachers can
comprehend that commonly students evolve normally together. A number of students
that are on the same development step may show similar characteristics and they
also have similar readiness of learning. Therefore, learning together or
classically is possible to be implemented. Yet teachers should not forget that
there are differences of the speed of development on each individual. In a
group of student may be on the same step
of such development, but it is possible that there are some students that show
different characteristics and readiness of learning. Therefore, although teachers
implement the learning process classically, yet they must concern constantly,
consider and treat the students individually too. They must look at the unique
of each students, physically, mentally, emotionally or socially.
The third principle states that “All aspects of development that
are physical, social, mental and emotional within their growth/development is
one another mutually connected or mutually influential”. This is one of
evidence that individual is integrated one unity. The implication, thus the
learning process in madrasah ibtidaiyah or in elementary school that is
implemented in various subjects should be always relevant and related with the
whole aspect of children’s development. Teachers should understand students as
an integrated whole and it is wise that if teachers operate the learning
process in integrated way too.
“The direction of individual development can be predicted”. The
fourth principle of development implicates that education is held with
considering the direction of individual/students’ development.
The fifth principle emphasizes that “The development works step by
step; each step has certain characteristic; the step of development is one way
with age; the step of development works continuously and overlaping”. This
principle fundamentally implicates that education is operated that is appropriate
with the phase of students’ development. Teachers are expected to compile the
curriculum of education or learning program that is commensurate with the phase
of their students’ development.
The direction of individual development can be predicted, in line
with that individual development in general follows the following direction:
1)
Individual evolves wholely; starting
from the head till legs and starting from the center of body till the legs and
hands.
2)
Structural development precedes the
function.
3)
The development starts from general
things towards specific things.
4)
Mental development starts from the
concrete one to the abstract one; starts from thinking skill that exists
whatever at this time till conceptual thinking skill that has orientation to
the future.
5)
The development moves from
egocentrism towards perspectivism till it can understand what other people see.
6)
The development moves from the
domination of outside control to inside control.
7)
The development moves from
absolutism to relativism.
8)
The development moves from spirally
towards the direction of purpose.
There are some implications from the direction of individual
development against education. First, considering that structural
development precedes the function, thus learning program should be compiled
with concerning the readiness and the maturation of structure on individual of
students. For example, students are not allowed to write before the muscles of
their fingers are ready to grasp the pencil well. Second, the
compilation of the curriculum of education and the compilation of learning
program that are operational in educational institution (madrasah
ibtidaiyah/elementary school) should be done by concerning and considering
various directions of individual development that agree with his/her
development phase. For instance, educational program should be started from the
general teaching material and further it leads to the specific one; started
with studying concrete things and further it leads to the abstract one;
compiled step by step to be able to omit egocentricism and leads to
perspectivism; compiled step by step to generate control skill from the inside
of students; in certain ways learning program should be compiled step by step
to build the concept about things that are fundamentally absolute and relative;
and that the width, complexity and the deep of the content of educational
curriculum or learning program should be compiled spirally towards the higher
development or maturation.
The Determiner factors of Individual Development and The
Implication towards Education
One of the problem
that becomes the concern of psychology experts is about the determiner factors
of individual development. The result of psychological study as the answer
against such problem can be distingushed into three groups of theory, namely
nativism, empirism, and convergence.
a.
Nativism
The figure of nativism theory is Schoupenhauer. The adherents of
this theory assume that each individual (child) is born to the world with
heredity factors that is brought since the birth that derives from his/her
parent. Heredity factors that is brought since the birth also known with the
term of nature. This factors becomes determiner factors of individual
development. In other words, for the adherents of Nativism theory that nature
is viewed as the one and only of the individual development determiner.
The adherents of this theory generally maintain their conception by
showing various similarities or identical identity between parents and their
children. For instance, if the father is proficient in playing music
instrument, thus his children will be proficient in playing too; if the parents
interest in science, so their children will interest in science too.
Nativism theory gives implication that is not conducive towards the
education. This theory does not give the probability for educator in order to
change the personality of their students. Based on this, the role of education
or school is less to change the development of students. The theory is viewed
as the pesimism theory towards the efforts of education to change or to take
part in determining individual development.
The nativism theory cannot be maintained its truth. This theory
cannot be accepted by us, although as the assumption in educational science or
in educational practice. Because, if we accept this theory as an assumption, if
we accept this theory as a truth that individual development depends on the
basic, so the consequence is that madrasah or elementary school can be possible
to be dispersed. Parents, teachers and any one are not necessary to do
education, because education is viewed that will not function to change the condition
of individual/student that is appropriate with the his/her basic.
b.
Empirism
The figure of the theory of empirism are John Locke and J.B Watson.
They refuse the assumption of Nativism, they assume that every child that is
born to this world is in the clean condition like a blank blackboard without
any scratch. Individual that is born to this world does not bring any bringing
ideas. The adherents of this theory convince that after the birth, the
determiner factor of individual development is determined by the factor of
environment/his/her experience. The determiner factor of individual development
that is convinced by the adherents of empirism is known also with the term of nurture.
Individual development depends on his/her learning result whereas the main
determiner factor of in learning entirely derives from the environment (Yelon
and Weinstein, 1977). Thus, they do not believe in heredity factor or natural
factor that is brought since the birth as the determiner of individual
development. Conversely, they believe that experience/environment or nurture is
the only one of the determiner factor of individual development.
The implication of empirism theory towards the education is to give
the probability entirely for the educator to be able to form the personality of
students; the responsibility is entirely on the educator. Empirism theory gives
optimistic implication to the education to be capable entirely to influence or
determine individual development like what is expected by the educator. This
refers to the statement of J.B Watson:
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own
specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at
random and train him to become any type specialist. I might select doctor,
lawyer, artist, mechant-chief, and yes even beggar-man and thief, regardless of
his talents, penchants, tendecies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors” (Edward J. Power, 1982).
Can the truth of empirism theory seemingly be maintained? As stated
by Sumadi Suryabrata (1990:187-188) that “If it seems that the conception of
empirism actually is true, so we will be able to create the ideal human being
as our dream about. It can be happened if we provide the needed conditions for
it. But the reality proves the different things than what we describe”.
c.
Convergence theory
The figures of the convergence theory are William Stern and Robert
J. Havighurst. They assume that individual development is determined by the
nature or heredity factor that is brought since the birth or by the nurture
factor/environment and experience. For example, Havighurst states that “the
characteristic of developmental task in baby and child periods is biosocial.
Because, the development of children is based on the periodical maturation of
their body organ (biological), and their success on that developmental task
depends on their social environment (Robert J. Havighurst, 1953). The research
that is done by some experts also shown that individual development is
influenced by interactions with the complex ways of heredity factor and
environment factor (Yelon and Weinstein, 1977).
The implication of convergence theory against education is to give
the possibility for educator to help individual development that is appropriate
with the expectation, yet the implementation must notice persistently to the
heredity factors of students: maturation, talent, skill, mentality, etc.
Therefore, convergence theory is the suitable theory that we can apply in
educational practices.
