SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
Translated by: Denny Nugraha
Department of English Education
From the book of “Landasan Pendidikan” (the foundation of
education) written by Dr. Asep Kurniawan, M.Ag
The State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) Syekh Nurjati Cirebon
Introduction
An educational institution and its educational program will reflect
the life and culture of its society, circumstances of socio-culture will not be
separable from it. Sociological and anthropological foundation of education
namely are discussing about the concepts of education in society contexts and
its culture, the relation between education and society, the relation between
education and its culture, also various environments of education which exist
in the society. Therefore, the study of sociological and anthropological
foundation are viewed important for those of educator, especially for teachers.
The Concept of Education as A Process of Socialization and Enculturation
1.
Individual, society, and culture
An individual is personal human that has characteristic as unity
that cannot be divided, has differences with others or unique, also has freedom
to take the decision or action to the choice and his/her responsibility
(autonomy). Society is defined by Ralph Linton as “every group of human that
has lived and cooperated for long time so they can organize themselves and
perceive themselves as one social unity with boundaries that are formulated
obviously.” Affirmatively with the definition from Ralph Linton, Selo Sumardjan
defines society as “people which live together and which result culture”
(Soerjono Soekanto, 1986). From two definitions of society above, here are four
elements that must exist in society:
1)
Human that live together.
2)
They
do social interaction for long time.
3)
They
have awareness as one unity.
4)
They
constitute a certain system of living together that results culture, thus every
individu in the its inside feels linked one another.
Human live socially and earn culture. Culture is “the whole system of
idea, action and work result from the society’s life that is became the own of
human by learning” (Koentjaraningrat, 1985). There are three form types of
culture. Those are:
a.
The
form of culture as a certain complex of ideas, thoughts, values, norms, rules,
etc.
b.
The
form of culture as a certain complex of patterned behavior activities of human
in the society.
c.
The
form of culture as the things of human work result.
Between individual, society and its
culture cannot be separable. This is in the same manner as we understood that
every individual lives socially and culturally, though the society itself is
shaped from individual. Society and culture influence individual, conversaly
society and culture are also influenced by individual that build them.
In the society there are social
structure, Komblum defines it as “the recurring patterns of behavior that
create relationships among individuals and groups within a society”. In
social structure above every individual has certain status and role. Status is
a state of someone in a certain social structure. For example, in a school
organization structure someone may have a status as the headmaster, teacher,
student etc. According to Ralph Linton, status is a collection of rights and
duties of someone appropriate with his/her state. Whereas role is fundamentally
dynamic aspect of certain status. Someone is said doing his/her role if he/she
conducts his/her rights and duties agree with his/her status. Status is divided
into two types, those are: (1) status that is achieved since the birth or is
given to individual (ascribed status), (2) status that is gained, namely
status that needs certain quality that is obtained through certain efforts or
competition (achieved status) (Kamanto Sunarto, 1993). The example of ascribed
status are: status as child, status as man, woman, etc. Whereas the example
of achieved status are: class champion,
scholar of education, madrasah ibtidaiyah teacher, etc.
In order to fulfill the need or to
achieve his/her objectives, every individual or group conducts social
interaction. Within that social interaction they do various social actions,
namely individual behavior that is done with considering and orienting to other
individual behavior to attain certain purpose. Social actions which are
conducted by individual should agree with his/her status and role, and also
expected to be appropriate with the culture of his/her society. The society
demands this with no exception in order to create conformity and homogenity.
Conformity is the form of interaction that every individual in the inside acts
towards other individual appropriate with the expectation of group or society,
whereas homogenity is the existence of equality/similarity in the values, hopes,
norms, and individuals behavior in their society.
If in social interaction, social
actions that are done by individual are not appropriate with value system and
the norms or culture of their society, then the involved individual will be
seen as doing deviant behavior or social deviant. Towards the doer of such
deviant behavior or social deviant, people/society will expel him/her, even
they (society) will do social control, namely what has been defined by Peter L.
Berger as “various ways that are used by the society to organize its resistant
members” (Kamanto Sunarto, 1993).
2.
Socialization and Enculturation as Education
As explained above, one of the element of society is the existence
of social interaction. Social interaction implicates reproduction so the
society has scions. This means the society has young generation that will be the
next generation from the previous generation. In line with scion or
contemporary generation, with the purpose especially in order to maintain the
conformity and homogenity inside the society, and generally to keep the
progress of existence of society and its culture, thus towards its young
generation, it does what is in sociology called socialization, or what
is in anthropology called enculturation.
As we understood that human is different with animal which the
act/behavior is controlled by instinct that is gained since the birth. At the
time of birth, human baby is in zero power, because the instinct that is
brought when his/her birth is relatively incomplete. A newborn human baby ,
although he/she has had ascribed status as a child, yet he/she has not
recognized that status and his/her role. He/she also does not know and is not
able yet to do kinds of other status and role within the society that he/she
should achieve (achieved status). Thus also about the culture of his/her
society, he/she does not have yet system of value, norms, knowledge, custom,
also does not know yet and is not able to use properly various things as work
results of his/her society. Human child should learn relatively for longer
period of time to be able to conduct various kinds of role that appropriate
with his/her status and with culture of his/her society. Kinds of role must be
learned by human child (individual member of society) through the process of
socialization; and about the culture is also needed to be learned by him/her
through the enculturation. If he/she does not experience the socialization and
or enculturation, he/she will not be capable to interact socially, he/she will
not be able to do social actions that agree with his/her status and role also
the culture of his/her society. For instance, the behavior of children that
live with animal as stated by Anne Rollet.
Viewed from the perspective of society, socialization and
enculturation are the function of society in order to deliver every individual
- particularly young generation – into social life and culture. Also viewed
from the perspective of individual, in the process of socialization and
enculturation every individual appropriate with his/her status is demanded to
learn about various kinds of role in the context of culture of his/her society,
so that they can live socially and culturally.
According to Peter L. Berger that “socialization is a process
where children learn to be member that participate in the society ”
(Kamanto Sunarto, 1993). What is learned by individual through this
socialization are roles. Within the process of socialization, individual learns
to know the roles which have to be undergone by him/her also the roles which
have to undergone by others. Through the mastering of roles which exist within
the society, individual will be capable to interact with other people. Whereas
enculturation is a process where individual learns about how to think, how to
act, and how to perceive what reflects the culture of his/her society.
Herkovits stated that socialization shows the process of individual integration
into a social group, whereas enculturation is the process of acquiring cultural
competence to live as the member of such group (Imran Manan, 1989).
As explained above that the definition of socialization which is
used in sociology seems to have different meaning with the definition and the
meaning of enculturation which is used in anthropology. The definition of
socialization emphasizes to the roles-taking. Whereas the definition of
enculturation emphasizes to the acquiring of cultural competence. Yet in the
real life, actually in the socialization there adheres also the culture.
Because, the culture that determine the direction and ways of socialization
which is done by the society. Therefore within the process of socialization
truly happens also the process of enculturation (customization), in which
within the enculturation, an individual learns and adapts his/her thinking’s
world and behaviors with the customs, norms system, and rules that exist in
his/her culture (Koentjaraningrat, 1985). Thus also conversaly, that within the
enculturation actually happens also the process of socialization.
Conclusion
Education is managed to students for they can live socially and
culturally. Therefore, if we view education from the perspective of sociology,
it is identical with socialization, whereas if we view it from the perspective
of anthropology, it is identical with enculturation. Because in the process of
socialization fundamentally there happens the process of enculturation, and
conversaly that in the process of enculturation there happens also the process
of socialization, so that within this context, education fundamentally involves
socialization and enculturation.
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